Abraham Lincoin Ghost

There have been several stories about ghosts of former Presidents revisiting the White House. However, the most common and popular is that of Abraham Lincoln. Lincoln's Ghost, or to others as The White House Ghost, is said to have haunted the White House since his death. It is widely believed that when he was president, Lincoln might have known of his assassination before he died

The dream

Lincoln had a dream on April 14, 1865, the day that he was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth. As he told his Cabinet that day:

"In the dream, I was awakened by a faint moaning coming from somewhere nearby. I stood, and began hunting the noise, finally finding my way to the east room, where men and women were shrouded in funeral shawls. I saw a coffin on a dais, and soldiers at either end. A captain stood nearby, and I addressed him 'Who is dead in the White House' say I. 'The President,' is his answer, 'he was killed by an assassin.' In the coffin was a corpse in funeral vestments, but the face was obscured."

Sightings

Lyndon B. Johnson is supposed to have spoken with the ghost of Mr. Lincoln. Johnson, standing in the second floor room that had been Lincoln's office (Lincoln had used the Oval Office as a library), asked "You had a war, you had a Civil Rights movement, you had protesters and critics, what can I do?" And the story goes, the response was "Don't go to the theater." This story is a humorous yarn originated by an anonymous humorist on the staff of Bob Hope.

Lincoln's ghost can see the future, according to some witnesses, mainly White House Press Secretary Marlin Fitzwater in 1990.

In an unkind variant of the story, Lincoln advises his successor that he should go to the theater. The unfriendly variant has been told of many subsequent presidents

Abraham Lincoin Bedroom

Young Willie Lincoln (age 11) died in the White House in the bed now in the Lincoln Bedroom at about 5:00 P.M. on February 20, 1862. Both Theodore Roosevelt and Dwight D. Eisenhower claimed they felt the powerful presence of Abraham Lincoln in this room. Eleanor Roosevelt said, "Sometimes when I worked at my desk late at night I'd get a feeling that someone was standing behind me. I'd have to turn around and look." Rumors were that Winston Churchill had a Lincoln sighting in the room. Amy Carter, during sleepovers with her friends, waited up at night for the ghost of Mr. Lincoln to appear. Once the girls tried to get in touch with him with a Ouija board to no avail. Ronald Reagan's dog would bark outside the room but never enter. Maureen Reagan said she saw mysterious apparitions there. Actor Richard Dreyfess reported having scary dreams about a portrait of Mr. Lincoln that hangs in the room. "A high percentage of people who work here won't go in the Lincoln Bedroom," said President Bill Clinton's White House social secretary, Capricia Marshall. White House maids and butlers have sworn they had seen Lincoln’s ghost.

The Lincoln Bedroom was in the news during Bill Clinton's term because of its use as a bedroom for White House guests. But it wasn't always used as a bedroom. When Abraham Lincoln was president, it was used as his personal office and Cabinet room. (It was used in this manner by all presidents between 1830 and 1902.) During the Lincoln presidency, the walls were covered with Civil War maps. It had dark green wallpaper, and the carpeting was also dark green. Newspapers were stacked on the desk and tables along with large amounts of mail and requests from office seekers. Two large wicker wastebaskets were filled with debris. Mr. Lincoln signed the Emancipation Proclamation in this room on January 1, 1863.
In 1902 the room became a bedroom when all the second floor offices were moved to the West Wing during the Roosevelt renovation. It was named the Lincoln Bedroom in 1945 when President and Mrs. Truman moved in the bed and other furniture. Mary Todd Lincoln purchased the large bed, measuring eight feet long by six feet wide, in 1861 as part of her refurbishing of the White House. (The photograph of the bed is from the Meserve-Kunhardt Collection.) It was a part of a set of furniture she purchased for the Prince of Wales Room (besides the bed which had purple-and-gold satin curtains, the set included matching draperies, a marble-topped table, and six chairs). Several presidents used the bed including Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson. Never used by Abraham Lincoln himself, it is made of carved rosewood. The original mattress was made of horsehair. Barbara Bush replaced the mattress, but guests still report it's lumpy.

Many of the Victorian pieces in the bedroom were placed there by the Trumans when the Brussels carpet and the Lincoln bed were installed in 1945. The chandelier, which was acquired in 1972, resembles the one hanging there when Lincoln was president. The sofa and matching chairs, a gift to the White House in 1954, are believed to have been there during Lincoln's presidency. One of the chairs in the room, upholstered in antique yellow-and-green Morris velvet, was sold after Lincoln's assassination but was returned to the White House as a gift in 1961. The rocking chair near the window is similar to the one Lincoln was sitting in when he was shot by John Wilkes Booth.


Along the west wall are four chairs used by Lincoln's Cabinet members. They are believed to have been purchased for the White House when James Polk was president. To the left of the fireplace is a desk that Lincoln used at the Soldiers' Home (where he often stayed to escape the heat of Washington's summers).


President Lincoln's Cottage at the Soldiers' Home
On this desk is a copy of the Gettysburg Address that is signed, dated, and titled by Abraham Lincoln. Lincoln originally gave this copy to Colonel Alexander Bliss.

To the left of the bed is a portrait of Andrew Jackson that was a favorite of Lincoln's. The portrait of Mary Todd Lincoln, hanging to the right of the bed, was given to the White House by Mrs. Robert Todd Lincoln. It was painted from photographs by Katherine Helm, daughter of Mary Todd's half-sister, Emily Todd Helm. To the right of the mantel is an engraving of Francis B. Carpenter's 1864 painting titled First Reading of the Emancipation Proclamation before Lincoln's Cabinet.

Hanging above the desk is an 1865 lithograph titled Abraham Lincoln's Last Reception. It depicts Mr. and Mrs. Lincoln greeting guests, including Cabinet members, in the East Room. On the north wall hangs a portrait of Lincoln by Stephen Arnold Douglas Volk based on a bust his father (Leonard Volk) had done from real life. Other objects associated with Lincoln, including books he read, have also been placed about the room.
** Mrs. John F. Kennedy

Thank you to Sarah Norton Ramberg for creating the idea for this page. Sources used: The White House: An Historic Guide by the White House Historical Association in cooperation with The National Geographic Society; How the White House Works by George Sullivan; Lincoln in American Memory by Merrill D. Peterson; The White House: Cornerstone of a Nation by Judith St. George; The White House by Patricia Ryon Quiri; and the March 17th, 1997, issue of People Weekly.

Although the bed was not actually used by President Lincoln, the late author Dr. Merrill D. Peterson wrote on p. 324 of Lincoln in American Memory: “When President Truman told his aged mother, an unreconstructed Confederate, that she would sleep in Lincoln’s bed when visiting him in the capital, she told him in no uncertain terms that she would sleep on the floor instead.”

Diesel Cycle - Ideal Cycle for Compression-ignition Engines

Isentropic Compression (1-2) Click to View Movie (25.0 kB)		The only difference between ideal Otto cycle and ideal Diesel cycle is the heat addition process. Instead of constant volume heat addition process in SI engine, heat is added to the air in the Diesel engine at constant pressure. The four processes are: 1-2 Isentropic compression 2-3 Constant pressure heat addition 3-4 Isentropic expansion 4-1 Constant volume heat rejection
Constant Pressure Heat Addition (2-3) Click to View Movie (45 kB) Isentropic Expansion (3-4) Click to View Movie (29 kB) Constant Volume Heat Rejection (4-1) Click to View Movie (35 kB)		Noting that the ideal Diesel cycle is executed in a closed system and the working fluid is air according to the air-standard assumption. Also, changes in kinetic and potential energies are negligible. No heat transfer is involved in the two isentropic processes. The energy balances for these two processes are:       -w12 = u2 - u1       -w34 = u4 - u3 w12 is negative since work is needed to compress the air in the cylinder and w34 is positive since air does work to the surroundings during its expansion. In the constant pressure heat addition process, air is expanded to keep the pressure as constant during the heat addition. The expansion work equals       w23 = P2(v3 - v2) The energy balances for this process is:       q23 = u3 - u2 + w23 = h3 - h2 In the constant volume heat rejection process, no work interaction is involved since no volume change occurs. The energy balances for this process is:           q41 = u1 - u4 q23 is positive since heat is added to the air and q41 is negative since heat is rejected to the surroundings during this process. For the whole cycle, the energy balance can be determined by adding the energy balance of its four processes. That is,       q23 + q41 - w12 - w34 = 0
		The thermal efficiency of an ideal Otto cycle is       ηth,Diesel = wnet/qin According to the analysis above, the net work output is       wnet = w34 + w12 = q23 + q41       qin = q23       ηth, Diesel = 1+ q41/q23 Under the cold air-standard assumption, the thermal efficiency of an ideal Diesel cycle is
		In order to simplify the above equation, the cutoff ratio rc is defined as rc = v3/v2 Process 1-2 and process 3-4 are isentropic. Thus,        The thermal efficiency relation reduces to

Thermodynamics(Auto cycle, Diesel cycle,Brayton cycle,Gay-Lussac's Law,Efficiency of Heat Engine formulas)

Thermodynamics is a branch of physics which deals with the energy and work of a system. It was born in the 19th century as scientists were first discovering how to build and operate steam engines. Thermodynamics deals only with the large scale response of a system which we can observe and measure in experiments. As aerodynamicists, we are most interested in the thermodynamics of propulsion systems and high speed flows. On this page we consider the thermodynamics of a four-stroke internal combustion engine. Today, most general aviation or private airplanes are powered by internal combustion (IC) engines, much like the engine in your family automobile.
There are two main parts to engine operation: the mechanical operation of the engine parts, and the thermodynamics through which the engine produces work and power. On this page we discuss the basic thermodynamic equations that allow you to design and predict engine performance.
In an internal combustion engine, fuel and air are ignited inside a cylinder. The hot exhaust pushes a piston which is connected to a crankshaft to produce power. The burning of fuel is not a continuous process, but occurs very quickly at regular time intervals. Between ignitions, the engine parts move in a repeated sequence called a cycle. The engine is called a four stroke engine because there are four movements, or strokes, of the piston during one cycle.
On the figure we show a plot of pressure versus gas volume throughout one cycle. We have broken the cycle into six numbered stages based on the mechanical operation of the engine. For the ideal four stroke engine, the intake stroke (1-2) and exhaust stroke (6-1) are done at constant pressure and do not contribute to the generation of power by the engine. During the compression stroke (2-3), work is done on the gas by the piston. If we assume that no heat enters the gas during the compression, we know the relations between the change in volume and the change in pressure and temperature from our solutions of the entropy equation for a gas. We call the ratio of the volume at the beginning of compression to the volume at the end of compression the compression ratio, r. Then
p3 / p2 = r ^ gamma
T3 / T2 = r ^ (gamma - 1)
where p is the pressure, T is the temperature, and gamma is the ratio of specific heats. During the combustion process (3-4), the volume is held constant and heat is released. The change in temperature is given by
T4 = T3 + f * Q /cv
where Q is the heat released per pound of fuel which depends on the fuel,f is the fuel/air ratio for combustion which depends on several factors associated with the design and temperature in the combustion chamber, and cv is the specific heat at constant volume. From the equation of state, we know that:
p4 = p3 * (T4 /T3)
During the power stroke (4-5), work is done by the gas on the piston. The expansion ratio is the reciprocal of the compression ratio and we can use the same relations used during the compression stroke:
p5 / p4 = r ^ (-gamma)
T5 / T4 = r ^ (1 - gamma)
Between stage 5 and stage 6, residual heat is transferred to the surroundings so that the temperature and pressure return to the initial conditions of stage 1 (or 2).
During the cycle, work is done on the gas by the piston between stages 2 and 3. Work is done by the gas on the piston between stages 4 and 5. The difference between the work done by the gas and the work done on the gas is shown in yellow and is the work produced by the cycle. We can calculate the work by determining the area enclosed by the cycle on the p-V diagram. But since the processes 2-3 and 4-5 are curves, this is a difficult calculation. We can also evaluate the work W by the difference of the heat into the gas minus the heat rejected by the gas. Knowing the temperatures, this is an easier calculation.
W = cv * [(T4 - T3) - (T5 - T2)]
The work times the rate of the cycle (cycles per second cps) is equal to the power P produced by the engine.
P = W * cps

On this page we have shown an ideal Otto cycle in which there is no heat entering (or leaving) the gas during the compression and power strokes, no friction losses, and instantaneous burning occurring at constant volume. In reality, the ideal cycle does not occur and there are many losses associated with each process. These losses are normally accounted for by efficiency factors which multiply and modify the ideal result. For a real cycle, the shape of the p-V diagram is similar to the ideal, but the area (work) is always less than the ideal value.

Diesel Cycle

Rudolph Diesel
	Rudolph Diesel was born in Paris of Bavarian parents in 1858. As a budding mechanical engineer at the Technical University in Munich, he became fascinated by the 2nd law of thermodynamics and the maximum efficiency of a Carnot process and attempted to improve the existing thermal engines of the day on the basis of purely theoretical considerations. His first prototype engine was built in 1893, a year after he applied for his initial patent, but it wasn't until the third prototype was built in 1897 that theory was put into practice with the first 'Diesel' engine.
Diesel Cycle Operation
The Diesel cycle is the cycle used in the Diesel (compression-ignition) engine. In this cycle the heat is transferred to the working fluid at constant pressure. The process corresponds to the injection and burning of the fuel in the actual engine. The cycle in an internal combustion engine consists of induction, compression, power and exhaust strokes.
Run Diesel Cycle Animation
	Induction Stroke The induction stroke in a Diesel engine is used to draw in a new volume of charge air into the cylinder. As the power generated in an engine is dependent on the quantity of fuel burnt during combustion and that in turn is determined by the volume of air (oxygen) present, most diesel engines use turbochargers to force air into the cylinder during the induction stroke. From a theoretical perspective, each of the strokes in the cycle complete at Top Dead Centre (TDC) or Bottom Dead Centre (BDC), but in practicality, in order to overcome mechanical valve delays and the inertia of the new charge air, and to take advantage of the momentum of the exhaust gases, each of the strokes invariably begin and end outside the 0, 180, 360, 540 and 720 (0) degree crank positions (see valve timing chart).
	Compression Stroke The compression stroke begins as the inlet valve closes and the piston is driven upwards in the cylinder bore by the momentum of the crankshaft and flywheel. The purpose of the compression stroke in a Diesel engine is to raise the temperature of the charge air to the point where fuel injected into the cylinder spontaneously ignites. In this cycle, the separation of fuel from the charge air eliminates problems with auto-ignition and therefore allows Diesel engines to operate at much higher compression ratios than those currently in production with the Otto Cycle.
	Compression Ignition Compression ignition takes place when the fuel from the high pressure fuel injector spontaneously ignites in the cylinder. In the theoretical cycle, fuel is injected at TDC, but as there is a finite time for the fuel to ignite (ignition lag) in practical engines, fuel is injected into the cylinder before the piston reaches TDC to ensure that maximum power can be achieved. This is synonymous with automatic spark ignition advance used in Otto cycle engines.
	Power Stroke The power stroke begins as the injected fuel spontaneously ignites with the air in the cylinder. As the rapidly burning mixture attempts to expand within the cylinder walls, it generates a high pressure which forces the piston down the cylinder bore. The linear motion of the piston is converted into rotary motion through the crankshaft. The rotational energy is imparted as momentum to the flywheel which not only provides power for the end use, but also overcomes the work of compression and mechanical losses incurred in the cycle (valve opening and closing, alternator, fuel injector pump, water pump, etc.).
	Exhaust Stroke The exhaust stroke is as critical to the smooth and efficient operation of the engine as that of induction. As the name suggests, it's the stroke during which the gases formed during combustion are ejected from the cylinder. This needs to be as complete a process as possible, as any remaining gases displace an equivalent volume of the new charge air and leads to a reduction in the maximum possible power.
	Exhaust and Inlet Valve Overlap Exhaust and inlet valve overlap is the transition between the exhaust and inlet strokes and is a practical necessity for the efficient running of any internal combustion engine. Given the constraints imposed by the operation of mechanical valves and the inertia of the air in the inlet manifold, it is necessary to begin opening the inlet valve before the piston reaches Top Dead Centre (TDC) on the exhaust stroke. Likewise, in order to effectively remove all of the combustion gases, the exhaust valve remains open until after TDC. Thus, there is a point in each full cycle when both exhaust and inlet valves are open. The number of degrees over which this occurs and the proportional split across TDC is very much dependent on the engine design and the speed at which it operates.

Mayan Civilization and Pyramids

Allowing us to trace the Mayan Civilization back in history as far as 3, 000 years, tells us that we have much to learn of the Mayan People. The people came from the southern part of mexico and the northern part of central America. Archaeological evidence shows us hat they began building their charactristic ceremonial structures (Mayan Pyramids) or Pyramid Temples, right back 3, 000 years ago. They belong from the Terminal pre-classic period and can be traced from before this time in some cases, they first seen as burial mounds.

There are two types of Mayan Pyramids: A climbing pyramid and the other was built for non climbing purposes, infact the purpose was thought to be that to be used to carry out sacrificial rituals. The climbing Pyramid strangley was not built for climbing at all, it had very steep steps leading to doorways that infact lead literally to nowhere!

Some of the pyramids consisted of as many as four staircases one for each side, others had a mere two on each side. The point was that when the priests or kings performed their rituals, they ascended the Pyramid from the staircases, which was a symbol of rising from earth to heaven. Obviously they would start from the ground and make their way up to the temple top, on the top was a constructed smaller building. Also situated somewhere in the middle was a platform that would connect the staircases, the priest or king would rest there and perform part of the ritual before continuing to the peak of the Pyramid.

Pyramids built as burial places were not just built for kings and priets but were also built specially for those with higher power. There were a certain Mayan Pyramid like construction. Normally these burial chambers contained treasures such as Jade.

These Pyramid like constructions could been seen above the tops of the jungle, they served as landmarks for the Mayan Civilization. It was also a reminder to the people that the Ancient Gods were also present!

The Pyramids also held symbolization for mountains, like thier temples held symbolization for something very different, according to historians the temples were a symbol to the caves that led to the underworld, while the doorways were representative of the mouths of monsters, and hence were embellished accordingly. The Mayan people had a great reputation of being keen astronomers, therefore using their pyramid structures as observatories. As well as religion, period of time and customs to each region, it was said that the pyramids were built accordingly serving the variety of functions and purposes.

There was no aids of help taken when building these hugh structures, not domestically anyway, no animals or wheels which had not been invented then. It was also not common to use metal tools, thi swas because it was common in the region of which they inhibited.

The tools they made use of were made of quartize, granite, limestone, and flint on stone, tools used for example were fire axes and basalt axes. To correctly judge the vertical accuracy tools like plumb bob were used.

Given below are some of the great townships that were built during the 1, 500 years that the Mayans had flourished in the expanses of the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico, and in the verdant jungles of Honduras, Belize, and Guatemala, in which they built their distinctive pyramids, like Chichen Itza, Tulum, Uxmal, Tikal, Cholula, Copan, and Calacmul.

Its massive pyramids, including the enormous El Castillo pyramid which contains a jaguar throne, have wonderful murals and carvings. Dedeicated to the rain God, a natural well is found, it was used for making human sacrifices!

Tikal: Covering 60 squares miles and located in Guatemala lays the laregst city of the Mayan people. The Temple Pyramid, being the largest out of many of the Mayan Pyramids, boasts 230 feet in height. It was said for these pyramids to have been built from the period of the 7th century and headin out of the early part of the 9th century.

Uxmal: This was regarded as the most beautiful of the Mayan populated cities, given again its location in Mexico. It has the 'Pyramid of Magician'. Ithas been given its distinctive individuality as it is the only one with an oval base, instead of the usual square or rectangular shape. It provides us with fantsic breath taking views from the Pyramis terraces, also genrously offering us wonderful acoustics. The other numerous, temple Pyramids, monuments and quadrangles are given some considerable size, and are in various degrees of preservation.

Cholula: This Pyramid without doubt has earnt its right to be given the name 'the great pyramid of cholula'. It was conisdered to be the largest of them all including the Great Pyramid of Egypt, making it really the largest in the world. Later, however, another pyramid found in the ruins of El Mirador, in Guatemala, known as the Danta Pyramid has overtaken it by size, measuring up to 230 feet in height. However the main Pyramid of Cholula is very big, given a base covering 25 acres of land! As now it has the look of of being a natural hill with a church on its peak, Mayan Pyramids are similarly covered by earth and are given a catholic church to surmount on them.

Calakmul: Also known as Kalakmul, this is one of the largest amongst the ancient Mayan cities that have been discovered. It is situated in the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve, 30 km from the border of Guatemala, in the Petén jungles. The name of this city means ‘City of the Two Adjacent Pyramids.’

During their astonishing time of inhibitation, they built many more Mayan Pyramids of various sizes and fame in all their ancient cities. The presence of these wonderful structures reminds us chilingly of their former presence and disappearence of their own civilization. It was said to have been in the 10th century period when the civilization left the mysteries of themselves to the world history. Rightly earned recently these fabulous Pyramids have yet again stolen the attentions of the world and have been given the name as one of the most new seven wonders of the world!

Ten scenarios for the end of the world

All mankind shivers in anticipation of December 2012, when according to some interpreters of the Mayan calendar the end of the world will come.

Will the end of humanity really come? The British newspaper "Daily Telegraph" published the 10 most-circulated in recent years, scenarios for the end of the Earth.

Invasion of aliens

This version was more popular than back in 1898 when HG Wells published his novel "War of the Worlds". But scientists have found an interesting trend - fears of a deadly alien attack are increased at a time when people are afraid of more worldly threats.

- At the beginning of the 21st century an unknown planet will interject with the Earth, and will destroy civilization, or will cause a huge natural disaster. This scenario is based on fiction invented by the American Zekariya planet Nibiru Sitchin.

Every 3700 years Nibiru ends up in the inner part of our planetary system, but there are Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars. Proof of the existence of Nibiru exists. In 2005, NASA announced that it has finally found a planet of our solar system and many believe that it will pass in 2012 near the Earth and will somewhat affect us.

- A powerful solar flare will swallow the Earth. Scientists actually believe that when the sun "exhausted its fuel, " it will swell to the size of a red giant, will explode and then swallow the Earth. That will happen no sooner than 5 billion years.

- Theory of the Earth's shifting magnetic poles. According to its supporters this will cause a change in the rotation of the planet and subsequent catastrophic events.

Scientists from Princeton University and the University "Paul Sabatier" in Toulouse found that Earth did some "re- balancing", 800 million years ago. They studied the minerals in rocks sediments in Norway and found that the north pole has shifted by 50 degrees in 20 million years. Such a shift will be due again in the very near future, predict the supporters of apocalyptic theories. According to geologists, however, this will happen over a period of 1 million years.

- The outbreak of a super volcano. Such volcanic explosion would occur when magma rose in the bowels of the earth, but can not find its way out, researchers explain. Enormous pressure accumulates, which ultimately will lead to a giant explosion. Such a cataclysm would spew into the air tons of toxic gases and volcanic debris, and would cause a new ice age and would destroy the life of the planet.

Ten scenarios for the end of the world

A similar explosion may be in a giant caldera in Yellowstone National Park in the U.S.. Satellite images in recent years there have shown changes in the movement of molten rock at a depth of 16 kilometers. But now, nobody knows if and when this caldera will erupt.

- World War III, for which will be used nuclear weapons. This scenario was updated during the Cold War. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, Cold War fears allayed. In recent years, concern has also been returned because of Iran's nuclear program, tensions on the Korean Peninsula and continuing tensions between India and Pakistan - two countries with nuclear arsenals.

Last year in Prague, Barack Obama tried to dispel these fears with the promise of a world free of nuclear weapons.

- The act of terrorism with weapons of mass destruction. After the attacks on the twin towers in New York on September 11, 2001, when nearly 3, 000 people died, fears of scenario # 7 have risen sharply. Western governments are talking about the danger of similar attacks against major cities.

At the opposite end is the conspiracy theory that the September 11 attacks were planned and carried out by the U.S. administration. Currently there is no evidence that Al Qaeda has nuclear weapons.

- Peak demand for oil will lead to the end of the world. Demand will be much greater than supply and shortage of oil supplies will have huge implications worldwide. Most economies are powered by oil, agriculture depends on it, the plastics industry is based entirely on it. Such a crisis would lead to collapse of social order.

According to optimists, this will occur by 2020, some oil giants, however, acknowledged that they have overestimated their oil reserves and raised fears that we have entered an era when demand for oil is greater than supply.

- Scenario number 9 is associated with the phenomenon observed in the winter of 2008 - the extinction of whole colonies. And over a third of commercial bee swarms in the U.S. died as a result of the collapse of the syndrome of bee colonies.

Syndrome spread to several European countries including France, Belgium, Italy, Spain and Portugal. Several reasons were identified for the disease - pesticides, Israeli acute paralysis virus, wax moths, climate change, mobile phones and their networks.

New cases of the disease were previously reported by affected parties and hanging the threat of a pandemic on the bees, which can lead to their complete disappearance. If something like this happens, several cultures that are important to people, would disappear. These include soybeans, cotton, some nuts, grapes, apples, sunflowers, etc.

Third of the food consumed in the world is produced due to unsuspected involvement of bees. So the extinction of bees could lead to shortages of some foods, which leads to migration, violence, wars.

- Global warming and climate change. This can lead to multiplication of elements, from floods, to droughts ... Few scientists dispute the fact that average global temperatures increased last century. There were, however, climate skeptics, who discovered the errors and poorly substantiated conclusions in reports of international organizations for change, said that climate change data are manipulated by climatologists.

The world today has taken to counteract this phenomenon, and organized several international conferences on climate change.

Mysterious Nazca lines

Centuries ago, deserts, hills and mountains in the Pacific coast of South America were covered by an extensive network of drawings, lines and geometric shapes, figures of mammals, insects and deities. Nazca lines opened in 1927, and are a most extraordinary legacy left by the culture that flourished 2, 000 years ago. These lines and other figures represent a series of complex projects, some of them with long miles, which can be seen in their true dimension only from heaven. Not to be assumed that then the Nazca culture were able to fly, but still remains the question of how these drawings are made, what technologies are used and for what purpose have these lines been made?

Nazca Lines

City Nazca was founded in 1591 by the Spanish who conquered Nazca on plateau without any knowledge of what is located nearby. Today Nazca is a small, underdeveloped town, the main economic activity is based on tourism associated with unusual shapes, agriculture and trade. Tourism is directly related to the Nazca lines and other archaeological complexes such as the Kahuachi, Estakueriya, Chauchila tombs and the lines of Palpa valley.

Who drew the lines of Nazca?

Undoubtedly, after this question comes a number of questions, namely: Ancient religion? Did aliens came from space? Ancient astronomers? Artists with extraordinary opportunities? Initially it was thought that these pieces are the remains of irrigation canals in the flooded valley of Nazca. But after having been seen from the air, it became clear that the lines are fully recognizable as a huge network of amazing artifacts as they are in reality.

There are many hypotheses about the emergence of these incredible pieces, such as Erich von Danica, who claims to the 'chariots of the gods' that they are remnants of a giant extraterritorial airport. But the reality is often much more mysterious than fiction and this is exactly the case with Nazca and other artifacts of ancient cultures of Peru. Long before Inca they managed four kingdoms Nazca, Parakas, Kazma and Karan and yet with no plants were still able to calculate the passing time and seasons, and have built some of the oldest cities in the world.

New Science of Nazca lines

With the advancement of science we are able to learn more about ancient civilizations that may have created the Nazca lines and other mysterious figures.

In August 2007 a new science is presented by Anthony Pera, John McGovern, Alfred Koyayama, Marinus Anthony van der Slazhs and Matthias Wash. This new theory of science explores the relationship between prehistoric stone carvings, shapes of the earth and the periodic and extraordinary intensity of emission and appearance of the glow. There is a very high energy radiance if the world finishes and starts again repeating itself every several thousand years. This not only provokes high energy radiance but also provokes the changing of colors and patterns.

In many cases this can also reproduce static high energy radiation on the ground, resulting in the formation of a 'glass like wildfire' which also forms patterns that differ substantially from the ordinary to lightening strikes, namely in the form of lines, as are the Nazca lines.

Make-up of ancient Egyptians protected against infections

Thick painted eyes of the ancient Egyptians were not only beauty but also a healthy goal. Namely, to protect them from infection. Assumption groups voiced by French scientists to the "National Geographic".

Ancient Egyptians believed that make-up ocular had magical properties, drawing eyes so they can provide protection from the gods Ra and Horus against diseases such as eye infections such as conjunctivitis, which are commonly found in marshy areas near the Nile.

Generally found in the make-up of the Egyptians are four components, based on the lead. It was therefore considered that the make-up of Cleopatra and her subordinate was harmful.
Make-up of ancient Egyptians protected against infections

The new study, however, is not so. The make-up contained low doses of lead salts. They have positive qualities, as in contact with skin they stimulate the production of nitric oxide. This is a chemical that stimulates the immune system and helps in the battle against bacteria.

"Two of the components contained in the make-up of the Egyptians, are not found in their natural state and has required 30 day to be created. In my opinion, the Egyptians knew that these ingredients improve Health and produced them intentionally, " reported one participant in the study, from the University Pierre et Marie Curie in Paris.

Ancient Egyptians and kissing death

Grave of men kissing was discovered in 1964 during an archaeological excavation of ancient tombs in the vicinity of Cairo. Once the archaeologists dug the tomb, they found neither the king nor treasures.

It shocked them somewhat, but the surprise came later. On the wall of the tomb were buried embossed images. These were two men. Surprisingly, however, was that they were frozen in a hug.

Their hands were intertwined, and their noses rub each other, which in ancient Egypt are believed to be an intimate kiss. A relief was written under their names and these were Nianhhnum and Hnumhotep. Egyptologists decipher them and give their occupation; they were personal manicurists to the Pharaoh during the fifth dynasty.

In the tombs of the Pharaoh were found his wife, children and even pets but never the latter husband who does not seem to be of a direct relative. Scientists still disagree on the question of relations between the two manicurists.

According to one hypothesis they were Siamese twins who just cannot but touch each other. According to others their relationship was pure love and therefore those who buried them have enabled them to be together in death.

Scientists have not yet discovered the mysterious reasons for this strange burial. They believe that the truth on this issue will shed light on homosexual relationships in the palace of the ancient Pharaohs.

Volcano struck the Neanderthals

Scientists from Russia announced in the newspaper, that it was 40, 000 years ago that the powerful volcano struck Neanderthals in Europe.

The eruption caused a "volcanic winter", which has proved fatal for the Neanderthals.
Volcanic Eruption

Modern humans have survived because at that time they lived in Africa and Southwest Asia, away from the reach of volcanic ash clouds.

Neanderthal is an extinct man that lived in Europe and western Asia in the era of the middle Paleolithic (130, 000 to 14, 000 BC). Until recently, Neanderthals have been regarded as subspecies of Homo sapiens and have been classified under the name, Homo sapiens neanderthalensis.

According to modern scientists, Neanderthals are materially different from modern man, with whom he has developed in parallel as a separate species. The two types of people likely shared a common ancestor, but Neanderthal does not fit into any evolutionary theory as a direct ancestor of modern man.

Researchers found deposits of volcanic dust in the cave in the Caucasus, which showed that Neanderthals were overtaken by an ecological disaster.

Among the deposits were very small plants. The disappearance of plants has been disastrous for the large mammals as they were the main food for the Neanderthals.

The scientist's team analyzed layers in the cave and discovered two types of volcanic ash which corresponded to two separate eruptions 45, 000 and 40, 000 years ago.

The first of the two eruptions was in the territory of the Caucasus and was weaker. The second, however, was very strong and was in what is now southern Italy.

Parts of the book of the dead were found in the sarcophagi

During excavations in El-Fayum oasis located 100 kilometers from Cairo 57 tombs have been discovered. Many of them have remained in very good condition and include a painted wooden sarcophagi.

They are of the eighteenth dynasty that ruled Egypt and the oldest of these tombs is 2750 BC. In this oasis, archaeologists have found items that may shed new light on the beliefs of the ancient Egyptians.

One of the oldest tombs proved to be virtually untouched by thieves. Mummies in all newly discovered tombs are covered with canvas.

The tomb was decorated with religious texts of the famous "Book of the Dead" and the scenes featuring ancient Egyptian deities, whose purpose was to help the deceased to undergo such tests of the afterlife.

One of the best preserved texts of the Book of the Dead refers precisely to the time of the eighteenth dynasty, when this work had intervened in a new stage of development.

Then the texts were moved on to the papyrus sarcophagi. Most of the papyrus texts from the mysterious book have been discovered in the tombs at Thebes. This caused the Book of the Dead to be called The Book of Thebes.

The papyrus was richly decorated with fine paintings that depicted scenes and burial containers in the afterlife. Researchers shared a special interest in the 125th page of the book, which describes the court of Osiris, who judged the deceased.

Osiris was the king and judge in the world of the dead, he was seated on a throne with the signs of kingship - crown, scepter and scourge. Above him is depicted, the god 42.

These are probably the gods of the different Egyptian regions. In the center of the room stood a statue of God Gore and God Anubis, it was a symbol of the soul of the ancient Egyptians.

In one part of the statue is the heart, mild or burdened with sins is the other - a reality in the form of the goddess Mahath. If a person has led a righteous life, his heart was with the severity of the statuette.

If he was wrong, the heart was more severe. Excuses from the deceased would go to paradise after death, but the sinner is eaten by the monster Amato, which constitutes a lion with a crocodile head.

Book of the Dead is a religious collection in which moral certainties are intertwined with ancient magic. In this collection there are prayers, songs and spells associated with the cult of the afterlife.

This colorful mix is explained by the fact that probably the Book of the Dead was edited and enriched for several centuries. Ancient texts have traditionally remained until recent times, although their content is to remain uncertain for the new generations.

Mayan calendar does not predict the end of the world

Scientists from around the world continue to study the Mayan calendar, according to which during the time and year of 21/12/2012 the world will come to an end on planet earth.

In the calendar it is described that on December 21st the sun will rise to the center of the Milky Way, listed as a black hole. Over the past five years, astronomers have discovered that in fact there is a huge black hole at the center of our Milky Way galaxy.

Modern astronomers supported the hypothesis that on the 21st December 2012 the situation on the ground will be aligned with the sun and the center of our Milky Way galaxy. This event happens once every 25, 800 years. Nobody knows what will be the effect, but the Mayans believed that something terrible would happen.

But does this have grounds for concern?

While studying the calendar of the extinct civilization, Michael Coe of Harvard University in 1966 concluded that after the calendar ends on December 21st 2012, then on that day so will come the end of the world.

However, many modern scholars have strongly opposed the theory that the planet will be deleted. Maya is one of the smartest and progressive civilizations born on Earth so far.

In their philosophy, time has never existed as a concept to the end of the world. Mayan Time is cyclical, it has no beginning and no end.

According to Mayan humanity we will be reborn again, but on another planet!

Volcanoes hide anciant Myan secrets

Volcanic ash is falling systematically on the land of Mayan mystery explains how ancient metropolises have prospered in relatively poor soil, through which they survived.

Metropolitan areas of the Maya were built relatively far from the volcanoes in their land, but a new study shed light on how these Cities have survived, says "National Geographic".
Mayan Ruins

Mayan empire stretched from today’s southern Mexico through Guatemala to northern Honduras and flourished between 250 and 900 year BC and then declined.

Recently scientists discovered beige clay minerals in the ducts of the archaeological site Tikal in Guatemala, where in the past was the largest city in the southern lands of the Maya.

This mineral, which is volcanic can be formed only after the fall of volcanic ash. Scientists made this chemical analysis to establish the source and found that the material of Tikal comes from volcanoes on the territory of modern states Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras and Mexico.

"Minerals are talking about a series of volcanic events in the past, " says team leader Ken Tankarsli, an anthropologist at the University of Cincinnati.

Chalchuapa Mayan city in El Salvador was burned to the ground in a volcanic eruption in the sixth century. Scientists link the currents and dust to many distant cities of the Maya.
Mayan Pyramids

Samples of volcanic dust in Tikal are formed over a long period - from 340 BC to 990 BC by.

"There is no way to determine the number of eruptions, their frequency, or what kind of volcanic dust comes, " said Tankarsli.

The new discovery is considered very important because it explains the mystery of the Mayan lowland cities. Surrounding soil was very fertile. It was composed mainly of limestone and was not suitable for feeding many people. Yet in these places have lived between 160 and 230 people per square mile. The numbers puzzled scientists.

If the lowland of Maya cities, the fields were covered with volcanic ash for several years or even decades, soil there has been periodically enriched.

Then the powder was to improve soil fertility, and has increased its water permeability and porosity, and thus improves the ability to retain water. Volcanic ash is a source of useful items such as plants iron and magnesium.

Even a thin layer of volcanic ash, of several centimeters, may increase fertility for long. Moreover, some of it chokes harmful insects.

The Mayans believed that they could delay or prevent the eruption, having performed blood rituals and fed the spirits and gods to monitor volcanoes.

"They have built temples in the form of volcanoes and rituals were, like volcanic events. Volcanoes have been an integral part of Mayan life, " said Tankarsli.

Secrets of the Cheops pyramid

"Everything fears time, time fears the pyramids." This thought strikes each stood before the grandeur of the Egyptian pyramids. The most amazing buildings in human history were built approximately around 4600 years ago. Among them stands one of the last survivors to this day wonders of the world, the Great Pyramid.

According to Egyptian mythology, in this magnificent building should be preserved for eternity the mummy and treasures of the then ruler - Cheops. Some modern scholars believe that building there was for quite a different purpose than the common version. Others even believe that this was a giant machine for the production of excess energy.

One of today's consistently tantalizing questions: How can people who have had only stone hammers and copper chisels build such a huge building? According to ancient legends, Egyptian people inherited their incredible knowledge in ancient civilization. Unfortunately, very few reports have reached us, of how the pharaoh built the largest pyramid in the world. According to information disseminated, Egyptian priests told Herodotus that Cheops was a cruel tyrant. When he took the Egyptian throne, he brought misery to the country and forced everyone to work for him.

Another prominent historian named Diodorus does tell us that people hated the ruler so that they threw him in the mummy's tomb. Indeed, when the first treasure hunters penetrated into his tomb the sarcophagus was found there empty. There is another unsolved riddle on the construction of the ancient giant. If it was just the tomb, why was necessary the incredible mathematical perfection of both project?

According to modern theories, the pyramid is a scale model of the globe. Parallel and meridian, which intersect with it go through most of Earth. Therefore, it appears that it is located in the center of the Earth. While there is still much work needed, data archeology, mathematics and other sciences lead to the conclusion that the Great Pyramid is an impressive facility for capturing a mysterious energy field.

According to another theory, the pyramids at Giza are arranged like the stars in the constellation Orion. Researchers have many theories on the construction of the world of the ancient giants of the desert, but no exact answer to this day. These magnificent facilities survived millennia, and remain vigilant to keep their secrets. And we still only hope that soon a great mind will be able to unveil the mystery of the greatest surviving wonder of the world - the Great Pyramid.

NASA's Inspiring, Enlightening, and Successful Search for New Earths

Journey that began four decades before Columbus sailed for the New World finally ended when the Kepler space telescope snared a few errant photons as they shot past Earth’s orbit en route to infinity. The light had sped through space for 560 years, traveling more than three quadrillion miles from a star much like our sun. Captured by Kepler’s digital sensors, transformed into bytes of data, and downloaded to computers at NASA’s Ames Research Center near San Francisco, the processed starlight slowly revealed a remarkable story: A planet not much bigger than Earth was whipping around its native star at a blistering pace, completing an orbit—its version of a “year”—in just over 20 hours.

Aside from its size, the planet bears little resemblance to Earth. It circles so close to its star that its surface temperature probably exceeds 2,500 degrees Fahrenheit, hot enough to melt iron. Nevertheless, the planet’s detection was a technical and intellectual coup, a rite of passage for Kepler. The planet, dubbed Kepler-10 b when NASA announced its existence this past January, was the smallest world yet found beyond our solar system. Its discovery proved that the Kepler spacecraft, which was launched in March 2009, could indeed do what its designers had boldly promised: find small, Earth-size planets around distant stars, a task that once seemed so difficult as to border on the absurd.

Kepler-10 b was merely a preview. A month after the January announcement, NASA released its first full data set from the Kepler mission, and the results left astronomers straining for superlatives. “Frankly, we’re overwhelmed,” says Geoff Marcy, an astronomer at the University of California, Berkeley, and a member of the Kepler team. “What NASA is doing is akin to the transoceanic voyages of the 15th century—the voyages that opened up the whole world. With the Kepler telescope, we’re learning about the properties of planets across the cosmic ocean. This is history. It’s Armstrong stepping off the bottom rung.”

Kepler monitors 156,000 stars, less than 0.0001 percent of the galaxy’s population. Like some cosmic wildcat drilling operation, Kepler has struck a gusher, discovering 1,235 possible new worlds in its first four months of operation. That number doubles the previous total of just over 500, painstakingly gathered over the last 16 years. Prior to 1995, keeping track of all the known planets around other stars like the sun was easy—the tally stood at an even zero.

The bulk of Kepler’s data have not yet been studied, and the mission will keep going for at least two and a half more years. But it is already shredding the textbooks, showing that our galaxy (at least the fraction of it seen by the spacecraft) contains a far more exotic assortment of planets than astronomers expected to find. “We’re learning about a diversity of worlds in our universe that we had no clue about beforehand,” Marcy says. “Rocky planets, yeah, we thought there might be some of those. By the way, we’re finding some rocky planets that are even denser than Earth. But we’re also finding these mini-Neptunes, a class of planet for which we have no examples in our solar system. They’re like small Neptunes but with huge amounts of liquid water around a rocky core.”

Also on the list are 67 planets roughly the size of Earth, give or take a thousand miles or so in radius; 288 “super-Earths” up to twice Earth’s diameter; 662 Neptune-size planets; and 184 giants rivaling or exceeding Jupiter in size. The simple statistics from Kepler say that Earth-size planets are widespread.

Just two years into its mission, Kepler is well on its way toward determining whether planets like Earth are rare or common. But that is just the first domino as scientists try to topple the much bigger questions, the kinds that make the hairs stand up on the back of your neck. Does life exist on other planets? Are planets with life common? Are any other intelligent beings out there?

For the first time, we have a handle on the odds, and the numbers beaming in from Kepler are not only encouraging but staggering. “Our galaxy contains 200 billion stars,” Marcy says. “I would guess that at least 30 percent of them have an Earth-size planet. So 30 percent of 200 billion, that’s at least 60 billion Earth-size planets just in our galaxy alone”...



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An Easy Guide To Blogs

Almost everyone doing some sort of business online seems to have a blog these days, they have become very popular and with good reason: a lot of money can be made with a couple of blogs. If they’re not blogging for fun they are certainly blogging for cash. It has become so popular that a lot of people now use only blogs instead of the traditional website to get things done. Blogs can be used to promote businesses get information about anything or you can even give your opinion about anything. The good thing about blogs is that they are constantly updated with fresh information and ideas, that is, if the blog is maintained correctly by the owner – This is what makes them so popular with the search engines. Blogs usually get high ranking on the search engines because of the constant update of information. Search Engines love fresh content and if it’s on your blog first then your blog will be the first to get listed and ranked.

A Few Advantages of having a Blog

1. Blogging can be an excellent form of advertising for your products or business

2. Blogs are so easy to set up and they are free.

3. They usually get very high rankings in the search engines.

4. They usually contain constant updates with relevant information.

5. Blogs can be an excellent cash generator.

Anyone doing business online should by now have a blog or two or three, and if not they should start blogging as soon as they can. It is an excellent way to get your business out there and be noticed. Good Increases in sales usually follow a good blog promotion. There are a lot of ways to make a lot of money using only blogs. You can sell products related to your blog, or even unrelated. People have lots of different interests. You can advertise for someone else by placing their banners or text ad on your blog. You can also use Adsense ads to generate extra income.
Creating and starting a blog is very easy, it can be a lot of fun and exciting, especially when you start making some money from your efforts.

For a blog to be effective you must remember to update your blog quite often; every day is good or every other day. It definitely needs to be updated at least once a week. It’s important to update it. Your blog has to be filled with useful and interesting information that makes sense to people and they can use or learn from the information on your blog. Write about your area of expertise, topic or business area.

Blogs are great, but like everything else, in order to be any good at it, you will need to learn about it. Especially if you are a complete newbie at blogging, but don’t worry, it is so fast and easy to learn. If you want to know all you need to know about blogging then I would recommend you take a look the Bloggers Guide below.

A Checklist for Used Computers

It is very important to check a used computer thoroughly before buying it as it may lead to problems in the future. A hard drive will not show any outward signs but may be deteriorating. The same way the needle can suddenly slip and can cause scratches on the disc ultimately leading to memory loss as used computers can fail any time. If they are checked, the faults which may occur can be known. Let us first see the possible faults which may occur while purchasing a used computer.

Hard disk failures can happen due to heavy wear and tear over a period of time. The read and write heads of a hard disk are used to retrieve or recode data stored on the hard disk with the help of a disk platter rotating at a high speed. Over a period of time the risk of failure or malfunction of disk increases. Faulty sectors of the hard disks can be found out only if a full surface scan is done on the used computer. The scanning time depends on the capacity and size of the hard disk of the used computer. Many skip this procedure due to the time consuming process of scanning the whole disk and end up purchasing a used computer with a faulty sector.

Monitors need to be checked for any faults. The malfunctioning of a monitor is called a “dry joint” which results in the monitor not working after getting warmed. This can be checked only if the monitor is made to work for at least 20 to 30 minutes after switching on the computer.

Next is to look for any possibilities of the central processing unit getting freezed. Normally all the central processing units have a fan and heat sink for keeping the unit cool. Over a period of time the fans may not work properly due to the accumulation of dust and dirt resulting in over heating of the central processing unit and even leading to stopping from functioning. While buying a used computer the fan needs to be checked and if any abnormal sound is heard, it is not good for purchase.

The used computer may have a higher possibility of getting crashed and freezed due to the usage of the operating system for a good number of years. There may be a cache or RAM fault due to the over exposure leading to loss of data. To increase the performance of the computer and to avoid crashing, the operating system of the used computer can be reinstalled with a new operating system or a fresh one.

While checking the used computers for any faults, it is good to disconnect the network connection if any present before performing the tests. Also it is advisable to check the drives like the CD or DVD by opening and closing them and also playing something on the drives to see how they work. Monitors of the used computers can be checked for the resolution and brightness by trying different options of color, settings and so on. To check the hard disk size the CMOS setup can be gone through and to verify the speed of the processor, cache and RAM the pause button is pressed when it appears on the screen during the booting process. To check the booting process, the computer can be turned on and off a few times and seen how it responds. Checking should be done to see if all the passwords are erased before purchasing a used computer.

Considering a Prepaid Cell Phone Plan

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With a prepaid phone plan, you are automatically approved. There is no credit check required – you simply choose your phone and your plan and you are done. In the past, you were limited in choice of phone styles and features, but this is fast becoming a thing of the past. So if you have less than perfect credit, a prepaid cell phone plan may be right for you.

With a prepaid phone plan, you do not have to worry about a bill each month, as you would with a typical cell phone plan. This is because you pay for your minute usage in advance. When you use all your minutes, you can simply buy additional minutes.

Prepaid cell phone plans also include features that you would find with typical contract cell phone plans. They have really come a long way. You can choose voicemail, caller ID, and even text messaging. You even have access to the latest cell phone models, such as camera phones and music capable phones.

Prepaid cell phone plans are also a great option for teenagers who are just learning to handle responsibility. You have peace of mind as a parent knowing that you can stay in touch with your child at all times. You are also freed from worry knowing that your child cannot create any surprise bills for you at the end of the month.

You may also consider a prepaid cell phone plan if you rarely use your cell phone or allocate its use for emergency purposes only.

A prepaid phone plan is great for those with less than the best credit or for those who have little money to spend. It is a great tool for learning financial management skills and responsibility, if you struggle in these areas.

One of the defining factors for many of those who are considering a prepaid cell phone plan is freedom. You are free from contracts. You are free from a monthly bill. You are free to change and switch companies and cell phone plans as often as you wish with a prepaid cell phone plan.

Shopping for a prepaid phone plan is no different than shopping for a typical cell phone plan with a contract. Shop around, assess your needs and choices, and then choose the best prepaid plan for your lifestyle.

Bluetooth And Infared

With new electrical devices being produced every day, the problem of connecting things is becoming more and more complex in nature. The system that comprises computers and other electronics makes use of varieties of wires, cables, etc.

These parts will communicate through light beams, lasers, radio signals, and infrared. The problem however, is the devices and technology is often the connection between each component. Therefore, most electronic systems aren't used to their full extent due to the problems and imperfections.

To help simplify things, a solution was created -the solution of Bluetooth. Bluetooth is wireless and automatic, offering users a variety of features that have simplified the art of connection. Bluetooth has revolutionized the standard methods of connecting things to enabling almost anything to be connected to a single system.

Aside from Bluetooth, there are other ways of connecting wireless devices. One example of such is the IR or infrared. Infrared allows low frequency light waves to transmit signals to another component. This technology is easy to create and the cost of putting the IR device into a system is rather low.

Infrared technology is a one to one process. Due to the limitation, you may only send signals from one device to another, similar to a television set and remote control. You can only transmit signals between the two although not with a seperate system.

Aside from the fact that these two natures of infrared are obstacles to acquiring results, these same qualities have worked in advantage to the connection. Infrared devices need to be lined up directly, meaning too little interference can occur between the transmitters and receivers.

The technology behind Bluetooth works by transmitting signals through low frequency radio signals. The path of communication is working on 2.45 GHz, which is the same frequency band used in ISM devices.

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Bluetooth

Bluetooth has a lot to offer with an increasingly difficult market place. Bluetooth helps to bring with it the promise of freedom from the cables and simplicity in networking that has yet to be matched by LAN (Local Area Network).

In the key marketplace, of wireless and handheld devices, the closest competitor to Bluetooth is infrared. Infrared holds many key features, although the line of sight it provides doesn't go through walls or through obstacles like that of the Bluetooth technology.

Unlike infrared, Bluetooth isn't a line of sight and it provides ranges of up to 100 meters. Bluetooth is also low power and low processing with an overhead protocol. What this means, is that it's ideal for integration into small battery powered devices. To put it short, the applications with Bluetooth are virtually endless.

Disadvantages

Bluetooth has several positive features and one would be extremely hard pressed to find downsides when given the current competition. The only real downsides are the data rate and security. Infrared can have data rates of up to 4 MBps, which provides very fast rates for data transfer, while Bluetooth only offers 1 MBps.

For this very reason, infrared has yet to be dispensed with completely and is considered by many to be the complimentary technology to that of Bluetooth. Infrared has inherent security due to its line of sight.

The greater range and radio frequency (RF) of Bluetooth make it much more open to interception and attack. For this reason, security is a very key aspect to the Bluetooth specification.

Although there are very few disadvantages, Bluetooth still remains the best for short range wireless technology. Those who have tried it love it, and they know for a fact that Bluetooth will be around for years to come.

10 Benefits Of Bluetooth

Below, are 10 benefits and reasons to use Bluetooth technology.

1. Wireless - As you probably already know, there are many benefits and advantages to using wireless devices. Along with improving safety as a result of eliminating wires you don't need, wireless also offers you plenty of other advantages. When traveling with your laptop or other wireless devices, you'll no longer have to worry about bringing connection cables.

2. Bluetooth is actually inexpensive - The technology of Bluetooth is cheap for companies to implement, which results in lower costs for the company. These savings are then passed from the company on to you.

3. Bluetooth is automatic - Bluetooth doesn't have you set up a connection or push any buttons. When two or more devices enter a range of up to 30 feet of each other, they will automatically begin to communicate without you having to do anything.

4. Standardized protocol - Bluetooth is standardized wireless, meaning that a high level of compatibility among devices is guaranteed. Bluetooth will connect devices to each other, even if they aren't the same model.

5. Low interference - Bluetooth devices almost always avoid interference from other wireless devices. Bluetooth uses a technique known as frequency hopping, and also low power wireless signals.

6. Low energy consumption - As a result of Bluetooth using low power signals, the technology requires very little energy and will use less battery or electrical power as a result. This is an excellent benefit for mobile devices, as Bluetooth won't drain the battery.

7. Sharing voice and data - The standard for Bluetooth will allow compatible devices to share data and voice communications. This is great for mobile phones and headsets, as Bluetooth simplifies driving and talking on your cell phone.

8. Instant PAN (Personal Area Network) - You can connect up to seven Bluetooth devices to each other within a range of up to 30 feet, forming a piconet or PAN. For a single room, you can also set up multiple piconets.

9. Upgradeable - Upgradeable is the standard for Bluetooth. There are newer versions of Bluetooth in the works, which offer many new advantages and backward compatible with older versions.

10. The technology stays - Bluetooth technology is a world wide, universal wireless standard. With it being as popular as it is, you can count on it being around for years to come. As more and more devices start to use Bluetooth technology, more manufacturers will be eager to make their products compatible. A chain reaction will occur, making Bluetooth the standard for cutting edge wireless.

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